https://rall.ui.ac.ir/ بحوث في اللغة العربية en daily 1 Wed, 01 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 01 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30006.html Collocation is one of the important topics in semantics that examines conceptual relationships at the level of words. It is a measure of structure and context and a pattern of horizontal relationships between linguistic vocabulary in the text. These collocations are often predictable as they are the association of a word with another word or specific words in a sentence. The aim of this study was to reveal the types of collocations used in the prose of Ibn Shohaid Al-Andalusi, which were divided into verbal and nominal collocations. The methodology included an analysis of selected examples from his works, especially in his book, Disciples and Whirlwinds. The research found that verbal accompaniment, both verbal and nominal, was used in this writer’s prose to add aesthetics and artistic expression to the texts.   Introduction Verbal collocation is one of the important topics in semantics, examining the conceptual relationship at the word level. Semantics studies word meaning, focusing on the importance of language to humans. Verbal accompaniment plays a prominent role in forming compositions, acting as a bridge between words and enhancing meaning and readability. The term "collocation" was first used by British linguist Firth in 1957, who emphasized that language is not just a collection of words but a structured system where certain words are often found together. This phenomenon is especially significant in classical Arabic literature, where the interplay of words contributes deeply to the aesthetic and rhetorical qualities of the text. This article analyzed verbal accompaniment in Ibn Shohaid’s prose, using examples from his works to illustrate how collocations enriched his writing. Ibn Shohaid Al-Andalusi, a prominent figure in Arabic literature, is known for his intricate use of language, which often reflects the cultural and historical contexts of his time. By examining his prose, we could better understand the role of verbal collocations in shaping meaning and style.   Materials & Methods The article followed a descriptive-analytical approach, which was crucial for dissecting the complex relationships between words in Ibn Shohaid’s prose. It included an analysis of verbal accompaniment in Ibn Shohaid’s letter Altawabie and Zawabie, employing a critical and analytical methodology to uncover patterns in his use of language. The study aimed to understand verbal accompaniment and its role in Ibn Shohaid’s prose by categorizing collocations into verbal and nominal types, analyzing their functions and implications. The methodology involved selecting representative examples from Ibn Shohaid’s works, particularly focusing on Disciples and Whirlwinds. This text served as a rich source of verbal collocations that illustrated the author’s linguistic choices. The analysis was informed by a review of various studies on verbal collocation, looking at both contemporary and classical perspectives. By situating Ibn Shohaid within the broader context of Arabic literature, we aimed to highlight the unique features of his prose and how they related to established linguistic theories.   Research Findings The study categorized verbal conjunctions into two primary types: nominal style and actual style, each with various forms. Actual accompaniment included combinations, such as verb-subject and verb-object pairs, which were fundamental to creating coherent sentences. For example, verb-subject combinations, such as "abaqat alraayiha" (the smell is fragrant), illustrated how the verb functioned dynamically to evoke imagery and sensory experiences. Similarly, verb-object combinations like "tar aldhikr" (the memory flew away) showcased how verbs could convey actions that resonated with readers emotionally. Nominal accompaniment encompassed descriptive conjunctions, additional conjunctions, and pairs with contrastive or tandem relationships. Descriptive conjunctions, such as "laknat 'aejumiy" (foreign accent), enhanced the specificity of descriptions, allowing readers to visualize the subject matter more vividly. Additional conjunctions like "khasir alsafqa" (loser of the deal) introduced relational dynamics, while contrastive pairs, such as "harb wasalam" (war and peace) invited reflection on themes of conflict and resolution. The research indicated that Ibn Shohaid employed a variety of verbal collocations with a notable preference for verb-object types. This choice reflected a tendency to create dynamic and engaging narratives that drew readers into the text. Additionally, descriptive nominal collocations were used to provide richness and depth to his descriptions, enhancing the overall aesthetic quality of his prose.   Discussion of Results & Conclusion The study concluded that Ibn Shohaid’s use of verbal collocations was intricately linked to ancient rhetoric and religious language, particularly the Holy Qur’an. His works intertextualized with ancient texts, drawing on established phrases and expressions that resonated with readers familiar with classical literature. This reliance on traditional language not only situated his work within a rich literary heritage, but also served as a means of connecting with his audience on a deeper level. The findings emphasized that Ibn Shohaid's stylistic choices reflected a broader adherence to classical methods, showcasing a mastery of language that was both sophisticated and accessible. His use of verbal collocations contributed significantly to the aesthetic and rhetorical power of his prose, allowing for a nuanced exploration of themes and ideas. This approach underscored the importance of language as a tool for expression and communication, particularly in literary contexts. Furthermore, the study highlighted the role of collocations in creating a sense of rhythm and flow within the text. By strategically placing words that naturally accompanied one another, Ibn Shohaid crafted sentences that were not only meaningful, but also pleasurable to read. This musicality in language was a hallmark of effective prose, drawing readers in and enhancing their engagement with the material. In conclusion, the analysis of verbal collocations in Ibn Shohaid Al-Andalusi’s prose revealed the profound impact of language on meaning-making and literary expression. By examining the structures and patterns that characterized his writing, we gained insights into the ways, in which collocations enriched textual interpretation and contributed to the overall artistry of literature. As we continue to explore the intersections of language, culture, and literature, the study of collocation will remain a vital area of inquiry, illuminating the complexities of human communication and creativity in the literary domain. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30013.html Classroom and extracurricular activities play an important role in the teaching and learning process, as they allow for the practical aspect of learning to take place. These activities are particularly important in foreign language education because they provide an interactive environment that allows learners to practice the language in real communicative contexts. They also contribute to the development of learners’ social skills in addition to enhancing their linguistic competence through group work and collaborative learning. These activities serve as an effective tool to bridge the gap between the classroom setting and real-life situations, making language learning more relevant to learners’ daily needs and personal interests.Communicative tasks are a fundamental part of classroom activities in foreign language teaching. They offer students ample opportunities to engage in real-life situations that enhance their language production and communication skills. These tasks help develop language proficiency by promoting natural interaction among learners and integrating language skills into functional contexts that turn theoretical knowledge into meaningful practical applications.This research aims to analyze some of the most well-known Arabic language series for non-native speakers and to develop models of communicative tasks for common topics in levels A1 and A2 (the beginner stage) to support the teaching of Arabic conversation in these curricula.The study seeks to answer the following two research questions:What are the characteristics of conversation activities in the Arabic language series for non-native speakers (specifically: Arabic for the World, Echo of Life, and Arabic Between Your Hands)?What are the characteristics of tasks based on the proposed model, and what are some practical examples of communicative tasks to enhance activities in these series?The study adopted content analysis to examine Arabic language teaching series and used a descriptive method to gather theoretical data related to tasks and their features. Based on this, the study developed practical models for teaching Arabic conversation.Three educational series used to teach Arabic to non-native speakers were analyzed: Echo of Life, Arabic Between Your Hands, and Arabic for the World, due to their widespread use in institutes and educational centers and their coverage of graded levels from beginner to advanced. Specific parts of these series were selected according to the study’s focus on A1 and A2 levels, which correspond to the beginner stage of language learning. The study analyzed:Al-Arabiyya lil-'Alam (Arabic for the World), Sada al-Hayat (Echo of Life), and Al-Arabiyya Bayna Yadayk (Arabic Between Your Hands)The results for the first research question revealed that all exercises in the Echo of Life series rely on mechanical drills, focusing on substituting linguistic structures and vocabulary without offering communicative activities or ones that aim to personalize the topics. In contrast, Arabic for the World and Arabic Between Your Hands include two types of exercises:Mechanical drills involving various substitution techniques.Exercises that aim to personalize topics by asking questions related to students’ personal information and immediate environment.However, the study indicated a lack of communicative tasks in all three series. This leads to an imbalance between grammar-focused drills and communicative activities, especially in the basic and beginner levels of Echo of Life, which heavily depend on mechanical exercises and model answers. While linguistic structures are important for developing speaking skills, this imbalance may hinder learners’ ability to interact effectively in the language, despite their familiarity with common sentence patterns.Regarding the second research question, the study suggests that communicative tasks for topics at levels A1 and A2 should be designed with a focus on meaning rather than memorization, closely resembling real-life activities and aiming for a clear task outcome.Different types of tasks can be used to meet learners’ varied needs and develop their communicative skills, including:Information Gap Tasks: Information is divided between two students, such as sharing details about a famous person at the beginner level, or splitting a story into intermediate or advanced levels.Role Play: Provided it is meaning-based rather than memorized, this involves filling a communication gap through interaction.Discussion Tasks: Students share opinions on a topic. While this suits higher proficiency levels, it can also be simplified for beginners, such as expressing opinions on travel destinations (on the topic of weather) or choosing suitable housing when traveling.Task execution can follow multiple stages. In the pre-task phase, students may collect information individually or in pairs. During the task phase, they share the information in a collaborative setting.It is also important to use varied tools and materials in tasks, such as:Questionnaires for gathering data on topics like hobbies,Real restaurant menus for food-related activities,Website content for weather-related tasks,Housing ads for accommodation scenarios.Using realistic tools and materials simulates real-world communication, enhancing natural interaction and encouraging students’ active participation in completing the tasks. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30014.html Literary style reflects the distinctive approach of artists and writers, embodying their emotions and sensibilities across diverse texts. Stylistics, as a branch of linguistics, examines individualistic features in literary works, serving as a form of literary criticism that deciphers textual structure. Through the analysis of phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic phenomena, the implicit meanings embedded within a text emerge, revealing profound themes aligned with the writer’s worldview. Contemporary poets, influenced by evolving socio-political contexts, have cultivated unique stylistic values in their works. Among them, Lamia Abbas Amara stands out as a prominent Iraqi poet whose artistry intertwines with her social and political stances, particularly on gender equality and nationalism. This study explores the stylistic features of her poetry collection, If the Fortuneteller Had Informed Me, which exemplifies her mature stylistic and psychological depth. Rich in artistic structures, the Diwan reflects her cultural wisdom, prompting our focus on the letter “Lo” (if) as a conduit for expressing longing, joy, and sorrow. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, this research examines stylistic aesthetics through theoretical and practical lenses: defining style and stylistics, and analyzing their rhetorical and semantic manifestations. This dual framework deciphers the complexities of Amara’s poetry, unveiling the conceptual underpinnings of her work. Lamia Abbas Amara’s poetic style mirrors her intellectual depth and cultural richness, sculpting literary texts that mirror Arab society’s joys and sorrows. Her mastery of poetic language, creativity, and imagery invites a stylistic analysis to unravel her verses’ layered meanings. Our findings highlight her use of vivid metaphors, historical symbols, chromatic imagery, and monologues, which collectively paint themes of love, exile, despair, hope, and nationalism. Amara’s introspective thought is conveyed through similes and metaphors, often imbued with dynamism and emotional resonance. For instance, she likens the wind’s sound to Quranic recitation or a wolf’s stealthy attack, while seasonal irregularities in Baghdad metaphorize Iraq’s socio-political injustices. Historical symbols (e.g., Khalil Mutran, Abu Firas al-Hamdani) and chromatic motifs further express her psyche: black denotes despair, red evokes anxiety, and green symbolizes hope. Monologues serve as a tool to voice inner turmoil, resistance, or existential quests, creating immersive, almost tangible imagery. Through these stylistic choices, Amara navigates identity, loss, and aspiration. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30432.html There are categories of words that cannot be easily transferred into other languages due to their association with specific characteristics of the source language culture. Translating culturally specific vocabulary between the source and target languages is a very difficult and complex matter. Words that reflect the culture of one society are often incomprehensible to other societies with a different culture, sometimes leading to misunderstandings. Translation is a technique that, like all other skills, requires practice, training, and study. In this regard, examining the connections between literary works and authors from different nations and discovering their sources of inspiration is part of translation criticism. Therefore, translation can be an important and highly arduous tool for establishing this relationship. Translation theories are among the most important factors in translation learning, study, and training. This research aims to analyze the Persian translation of the novel My Uncle Napoleon in light of Peter Newmark's theoretical framework. In his translation studies, Newmark has presented seventeen strategies for translating cultural elements. The novel My Uncle Napoleon by Iraj Pezeshkzadeh deals with the life of a contemporary Iranian family. The novel revolves around the character of Uncle Napoleon, who believes there are conspiracies against him. The novel reflects issues of identity, authority, and family relations in Iranian society through a satirical style. The most important results of the current research, which is based on a descriptive-analytical approach and the use of office tools, indicate that the novel My Uncle Napoleon includes the five cultural factors desired by Newmark. In translating this novel, Heidari (2017) used the cultural equivalent method more than other translation methods, and thus the translation was in accordance with the tastes of the audience. Another result obtained in this research is that, based on the researchers’ opinions regarding cultural elements, it is possible to identify and extract them from the text of the source text. Heidari was able to extract and translate the cultural elements of My Uncle Napoleon and transfer them into the Arabic heritage. The translator used the five elements classified by Newmark. The cultural element that was most used in the novel My Uncle Napoleon is the material element, i.e., human artifacts, which include food, clothing, cities, homes, etc. The fifth element came in second place, which is words associated with signs, customs, and body movements during speech. Of Newmark's seventeen proposed techniques, the translator used nine of them in translating the novel My Uncle Napoleon, according to the following order: 1) transformation, 2) normalization, 3) cultural synonym, 4) functional synonym, 5) verbal synonymy, 6) grammatical changes and switches, 7) inversion, 8) elaboration, and 9) dualisms. According to the translator’s opinion—as we have noted—the best technique for translating material cultural elements is transformation. The best technique for translating cultural elements related to gestures, customs, and body movements during speech is cultural synonymy. To translate social culture and institutions, functional synonymy and verbal synonymy were used together. The translator relied on these technical techniques and created a translation desired by readers. However, in some cases, he adopted methods that threatened to complicate understanding the content of the target text; therefore, he should have used the technique of explanation and interpretation. We observed that the translator tended toward the rule of deletion. This work, even if it stemmed from a strategy with a linguistic or paralinguistic basis, reveals the extent of his weakness in the field of translation. Sometimes, he compensated for this loss by using the technique of compensation, and in other cases, he neglected this technique. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_29841.html Poetry, as a distinctive literary form, encapsulates multiple layers of meaning that demand analytical approaches beyond superficial readings to uncover its deeper significations. The poem Al-Tahaddi by Mohammed Al-Saleh Bawia, featured on page 43 of his collection Aghniyat Nidaliyya, emerges as a significant text due to its rich semiotic structure and its engagement with themes of resistance, identity, and hope. This study employs Michael Riffaterre’s semiotic theory to analyze the poem, focusing on its implicit meanings and symbolic depth. Riffaterre’s framework, which emphasizes a dual reading process—heuristic and hermeneutic—offers a robust method for decoding the linguistic and symbolic elements of poetry. The research aims to address three key questions: What does the heuristic reading reveal about the poem’s structure? What deeper meanings does the hermeneutic reading uncover? And what are the significant hidden significations revealed through Riffaterre’s semiotic approach? By situating the poem within the context of contemporary Arabic poetry, which has evolved into a medium of intellectual, political, and social critique, this study underscores the poem’s relevance in reflecting the complexities of the Arab world’s socio-political realities, particularly in response to the 1956 Tripartite Aggression against Egypt.The study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach grounded in Riffaterre’s semiotic theory, which dissects the text through two primary stages: heuristic reading, which examines the surface linguistic structure, and hermeneutic reading, which probes deeper meanings and accumulated symbols. Four analytical tools are utilized: accumulations, identifying semantic repetitions; descriptive systems, delineating major semantic fields; the hypogram, defining the core hidden meaning; and the structural matrix, providing the poem’s foundational framework. The heuristic reading analyzes the poem’s explicit linguistic elements, such as word choice and syntactic patterns, to establish its surface meaning. In contrast, the hermeneutic reading explores interrelations among textual elements to uncover latent significations, focusing on symbols and their contextual interplay. The poem’s historical backdrop, the 1956 Tripartite Aggression, is considered to contextualize its themes of resistance and Arab nationalism. Previous studies on Mohammed Al-Saleh Bawia’s poetry, such as those by Serbouk Khadija and Rahmani Abdelkader, are reviewed to highlight the gap in applying Riffaterre’s methodology to Al-Tahaddi, justifying the study’s novelty. This dual reading approach ensures a comprehensive analysis of the poem’s semiotic structure, bridging linguistic form and ideological content.The heuristic reading reveals Al-Tahaddi as a powerful expression of resistance against oppression, articulated through the repeated use of the word "atahada" (I challenge), which underscores the poem’s defiant tone. The text juxtaposes two semantic categories: words of resistance, courage, and hope (e.g., "atahada", "sabqa", and "naba’ al-dhiya’") against those of oppression and destruction (e.g., "quwwat al-jabbar", "kharab", and "haqd"). These lexical oppositions reflect the broader conflict between good and evil, embodied in the poem’s imagery of the Egyptian people as an unyielding "tood" (mountain) confronting the "asifat" (storms) of colonial aggression. The hermeneutic reading identifies four descriptive systems: confrontation with the enemy, hope and peace, the nature of the enemy, and national identity. The system of confrontation, marked by terms like "i’sar" (cyclone) and "hashrajat al-shuhada’" (death rattles of martyrs), symbolizes the relentless and transformative power of collective resistance. The hope and peace system, with words like "hubb" (love) and "salaam" (peace), conveys an optimistic vision of rebuilding post-conflict. The enemy system highlights the destructive attributes of colonialism, while the national identity system, with terms like "ummati" (my nation) and "qanali" (my canal), reinforces Arab unity and pride. The hypogram encapsulates the poem’s core as a challenge to tyranny and a refusal to submit, while the structural matrix frames this resistance as a journey from oppression to liberation, rooted in collective strength and hope.This semiotic analysis of Al-Tahaddi by Mohammed Al-Saleh Bawia, through Riffaterre’s framework, illuminates the poem’s intricate layers of meaning, revealing its role as a potent symbol of Arab resistance and identity. The heuristic reading establishes the poem’s surface structure, highlighting its linguistic oppositions and thematic clarity, while the hermeneutic reading uncovers deeper symbolic networks that articulate a vision of defiance, unity, and hope. The study’s findings affirm the poem’s dual accumulations of strength/challenge and love/peace, its four descriptive systems, and its hypogram and structural matrix, which collectively underscore the transformative power of collective action against tyranny. By situating Al-Tahaddi within the socio-political context of the 1956 Tripartite Aggression, this research demonstrates how poetry can transcend aesthetic purposes to become a vehicle for ideological and cultural expression. The application of Riffaterre’s theory not only enriches the understanding of this specific text but also highlights the broader potential of semiotic approaches in decoding contemporary Arabic poetry, offering insights into its role in articulating the Arab world’s struggles and aspirations. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30012.html Textbooks play a vital role in shaping students’ motivation toward learning. They can spark interest and engagement—or, conversely, lead to disinterest and detachment. This study aims to evaluate the content and format of the Al-Arabiyyah: the Language of the Qur’an textbook used in Iran’s lower secondary schools (grades 7 through 9), drawing on the perspectives of experienced Arabic teachers. The research follows a mixed-methods approach, combining descriptive-analytical and quantitative methods. The study sample consists of 24 Arabic language teachers from Tehran, each with at least 15 years of teaching experience. Participants were selected through purposive sampling based on specific criteria. Data were collected using the standardized evaluation questionnaire developed by McDonough and Shaw, and analyzed using R (version 4.2.1), a free and open-source statistical software. The findings suggest that while teachers find the visual and physical presentation of the textbook generally satisfactory, they express concerns about its content. Compared to earlier versions, the revised textbook has made noticeable progress in moving away from traditional grammar-heavy instruction toward a more communication-based approach. However, teachers note that in some key areas—such as providing real-life, socially meaningful contexts and reducing the use of mechanical exercises—improvements are still lacking. In Iran, textbooks are centrally developed by the Ministry of Education, working with a select group of university professors, experienced teachers, and authors. These textbooks are the sole approved educational materials used in schools, meaning neither schools nor teachers have the authority to choose alternative resources. The textbook development process includes several stages: needs assessment, drafting, review and approval by the curriculum planning council, editing, design, final formatting, printing, and quality control (Saeedi, 2022, pp. 70–71).Because teachers are in daily, direct contact with students, they are uniquely positioned to observe how students respond to textbooks—what captures their interest, what confuses them, and what fails to engage. Their insights can therefore offer valuable guidance for evaluating and improving the Al-Arabiyyah: the Language of the Qur’an textbooks. This study evaluates the series using the McDonough and Shaw framework, focusing specifically on the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade textbooks. Teachers are the ones tasked with making the material come alive for students. They can offer honest and informed assessments of how well a textbook supports or hinders student learning. As such, their involvement in evaluating and refining educational materials is not just helpful—it is essential. This study, grounded in their classroom experiences, aims to contribute to the improvement of Arabic language textbooks at the lower secondary level.The objectives of the study are as follows:Main Objective: To identify and explain the main issues in the Arabic textbooks used in grades 7–9.Specific Objective: To highlight key elements that could improve Arabic language instruction in schools, using the current textbook series as a case study.As for why this research is needed, textbooks are only effective if students feel a sense of connection and relevance to their content. Without that sense of need or curiosity, learning suffers. The Textbook Development and Curriculum Planning Office must take this into account when designing and updating educational materials. Teachers’ feedback can play a crucial role in this process, helping ensure that textbooks truly meet students’ learning needs.This study seeks to answer the following two research questions:What are Arabic teachers’ views on the structure, content, and overall quality of the lower secondary Arabic textbooks?From the teachers’ perspective, do these textbooks meet the essential standards for high-quality instructional materials?Preliminary observations suggest that the three books in the series lack clear conceptual continuity. Grammar instruction has largely been removed—apparently in an effort to simplify the material—but instead of omitting it altogether, it would have been more effective to present it in a learner-friendly and accessible way. Furthermore, the topics covered in the textbooks do not appear to resonate with students’ interests or developmental levels. The design and delivery of content overlook important principles of language pedagogy, and the textbooks fall short in teaching the four core language skills alongside cultural understanding. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30015.html The systematic study of textual cohesion originated from the scholarly endeavors of linguists during the 1950s and 1960s, reaching its theoretical maturation with Halliday and Hasan's seminal work, Cohesion in English (1976), which established the foundational framework for subsequent research in this field. Textual cohesion extends the analytical perspective beyond the confines of sentence-level analysis to encompass broader discourse structures, thereby providing measurable criteria for distinguishing coherent texts from non-coherent ones. The primary cohesive devices identified within this framework include reference, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical cohesion, and substitution. The Sermon of al-Moneqah represents an extraordinary rhetorical composition that deliberately avoids the use of the letter alif (ا). The historical context surrounding its delivery relates to a scholarly debate among the Prophet's companions regarding the most frequently used letter in the Arabic language, with many participants suggesting alif as the most common. In response to this discussion, Imam Ali (AS) spontaneously delivered this remarkable sermon, demonstrating both his profound linguistic mastery and rhetorical ingenuity. The sermon's structure follows a carefully organized progression: it commences with divine praise and enumeration of God's attributes, followed by testimony to the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) mission and qualities. The discourse then transitions to ethical exhortations, discussing fundamental themes of human mortality and posthumous destiny. The concluding sections feature supplications for divine forgiveness, profound reflections on Quranic characteristics, and final blessings upon the Prophet, accompanied by expressions of devotion to the Divine. This particular sermon was selected for study due to its unique capacity to demonstrate how deliberate lexical constraints (specifically the avoidance of alif) neither compromise conceptual coherence nor result in artificial discourse. The investigation reveals that despite this self-imposed linguistic restriction, the text maintains exceptional semantic integrity and rhetorical authenticity throughout its composition. The present study adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology to examine selected excerpts from the sermon, with particular focus on investigating the cohesive function of pronominal reference in establishing and maintaining textual coherence. The research specifically addresses the mechanisms through which pronouns contribute to discourse cohesion within this linguistically constrained text, exploring both their structural and semantic functions. Linguistic scholarship universally regards reference as one of the most significant devices contributing to textual cohesion. Reference is conventionally categorized into two primary types: 1) textual reference, which is further subdivided into anaphoric and cataphoric reference, and 2) contextual reference, which relates to extratextual elements. The function of reference consistently involves directing the reader's or listener's attention to co-textual elements, thereby prompting intertextual reflection that facilitates comprehensive understanding of the speaker's intended meaning. In Arabic linguistics, referential devices encompass a range of grammatical elements, including pronouns, demonstratives, relative nouns, and various other deictic markers. Reference operates as a sophisticated linguistic mechanism that effectively avoids unnecessary repetitions, which would otherwise result in semantic shallowness and structural weakness within the textual composition. Among these referential devices, pronouns constitute one of the most significant means for achieving textual cohesion. They serve the dual function of connecting language to external situational contexts while simultaneously performing multiple syntactic and semantic roles, with their connective function being particularly noteworthy. No coherent text can be properly conceived without the employment of pronouns, a fact that has consistently compelled linguistics researchers to investigate their active role in establishing and maintaining textual cohesion. In the specific case of the Moneqah sermon, the predetermined constraint of avoiding the letter alif has resulted in the particularly selective use of pronouns. Nevertheless, statistical analysis reveals that pronouns constitute approximately 25% of the sermon's total lexical content, representing a remarkably significant proportion that underscores their importance in the text's cohesive structure. As the sermon represents Imam Ali's (AS) direct discourse, one of the primary contextual references is naturally the Imam himself, realized linguistically through first-person singular pronouns. The first-person plural pronoun further exemplifies contextual reference within the sermon's framework. Through this strategic pronominal usage, Imam Ali (AS) positions himself in solidarity with the congregation, thereby maintaining the collective spiritual pursuit of divine guidance. This deliberate shift in pronominal reference serves not only to create discursive variation but also to significantly heighten audience engagement. Listeners accustomed to specific pronoun patterns in the sermon's initial sections encounter an abrupt transition to direct address pronouns, which effectively revitalizes attention through the introduction of a novel syntactic layer. The initial segment of the sermon, dedicated to divine praise, predominantly employs pronouns referencing God as their antecedent, despite the notable absence of explicit divine nomenclature in the opening passages. The semantic context and discursive flow nevertheless establish this referential framework unequivocally, as the audience encounters a series of descriptors and attributes that can exclusively refer to the Divine. The second major segment, which addresses the Prophet's mission and sacrifices, features a cohesive chain of interconnected pronouns referring to the noble Prophet (PBUH). When intervening pronouns occur in this section, they exclusively reference the Divine, creating a clear binary referential structure. Quantitative analysis demonstrates that third-person pronouns most frequently refer to humanity, particularly in the sermon's most extensive section, where the Imam metaphorically portrays the audience as archetypal wayfarers embarking on the eschatological journey. In the opening portion of this passage, the Imam directly addresses the people using second-person pronouns but strategically shifts to third-person pronouns—a rhetorical technique that markedly enhances inter-phrasal cohesion and textual continuity. This pronominal alternation stems from the universal applicability of the discussed traits across temporal and spatial contexts. Maintaining a consistent second-person address would have compromised this universality while simultaneously diminishing the sermon's profound didactic impact. A comprehensive analysis of primary and secondary references indicates that this sermon exhibits two principal referential domains: an initial focus on the Divine, followed by a sustained emphasis on humankind, with the latter demonstrating significantly higher frequency in terms of referential occurrences. Beyond their basic cohesive function, referential devices in this sermon also serve to establish rhythmic parallelism at clause boundaries, often deployed systematically to generate distinctive textual cadence. The structural framework of each sermon segment is fundamentally pronoun-based, with a complex network of coreferential pronouns facilitating semantic expression. These intricately interwoven repetitions avoid monotony while simultaneously producing aesthetic resonance and rhythmic precision throughout the discourse. The analysis yields several significant conclusions regarding referential usage in the Moneqah sermon: Reference serves as a primary device for achieving conciseness in discourse, enabling readers or listeners to retain information mentally without requiring constant explicit repetition of referents. The allocation of approximately one-quarter of lexical items to pronouns has effectively reduced word repetition in this sermon while simultaneously minimizing redundant references, thereby enhancing textual economy. Among various types of pronominal reference, anaphoric reference to prior antecedents clearly predominates throughout the sermon's structure. Third-person pronouns demonstrably play a more substantial role than other pronoun types in establishing textual cohesion, successfully integrating diverse sentences into a coherent whole from beginning to end. Despite the sermon's thematic diversity, the strategic use of first- and second-person pronouns further enhances its textual unity. The referential analysis reveals two key entities as the foundational axes of the text (God and humankind), with the predominant referencing of these entities establishing the sermon's fundamental thematic framework. An additional significant function of pronominal reference in this sermon involves the creation of rhythmic patterns, producing an aesthetic musicality through concise phrasing and strategic repetition. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30384.html In an age marked by profound intellectual transformation, education has transcended the traditional role of transmitting information and now emphasizes the development of advanced cognitive skills, chief among them, critical thinking. This skill is widely regarded as essential for learners to effectively analyze, evaluate, and make decisions in complex contexts. It forms the bridge between superficial learning and deep, meaningful understanding. As such, fostering critical thinking has become a central goal in modern educational policies and a foundational element in the design of curricula and instructional materials. Ennis (1985, pp. 44-48) defines critical thinking as a rational and reflective process aimed at determining what to believe or do, highlighting its inherently practical nature. In this framework, the transition from raw information to reasoning, followed by analysis, interpretation, and ultimately inference, forms a comprehensive model of critical thinking. Doddington (2008, p. 109) similarly argues that critical thinking is a logical process that enables individuals to analyze, interpret, and evaluate various situations, leading to sound conclusions. Paul and Elder (2006, p. 4) emphasize that although thinking is innate, unguided thought tends to be biased or distorted. Therefore, critical thinking must be cultivated through structured education and practice (Novella, 2012). Stella (2005) adds that individuals do not begin from a blank slate, but possess initial capacities that can be developed and refined (Sabri & Bin-mostefa, 2021, pp. 4-7). In the context of language education, particularly in teaching Arabic to non-native speakers, critical thinking is considered a key pillar of the learning process. Effective language acquisition is not achieved merely through exposure to language forms, but through active engagement with the language in cognitively demanding contexts. In recent years, a variety of Arabic language instructional series have been produced for non-native learners, differing in objectives, content structure, pedagogical methods, and target proficiency levels. Despite this quantitative growth, many of these series still fall short in terms of promoting higher-order cognitive skills. The emphasis often remains on the four core language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) while neglecting essential components of critical thinking, such as analysis, inference, evaluation, and comparison. Furthermore, many exercises focus on basic comprehension without challenging learners to engage in reflective or independent thinking. This reality highlights the need for analytical and evaluative reviews of Arabic language instructional materials to assess the degree to which they incorporate critical thinking skills and foster them through well-designed activities. Accordingly, the present study aims to examine the presence and integration of critical thinking skills in the intermediate and advanced levels of the AL-Arabia Le AL-Alam series, using a structured content analysis approach. To achieve this goal, the study addresses the following two research questions: To what extent are critical thinking skills integrated into the exercises of the AL-Arabia Le AL-Alam series at the intermediate and advanced levels? What differences exist in the degree of critical thinking skill integration between these two levels? The study adopted a descriptive-analytical approach, through which theoretical data were gathered by reviewing relevant literature, while the exercises from the intermediate and advanced levels of the AL-Arabia Le AL-Alam series were subjected to content analysis. A structured checklist, based on recognized indicators of critical thinking skills, was used as the primary tool to systematically evaluate the presence and distribution of these skills within the instructional content. The findings of the study indicate that the exercises in both levels of the AL-Arabia Le AL-Alam series include a wide range of critical thinking components, particularly in the areas of identifying assumptions, interpretation, inference, and explanation. Among these, inference was the most frequently emphasized skill, while evaluation of arguments and reasoning was entirely absent. Furthermore, the advanced level demonstrated a significantly higher representation of critical thinking skills than the intermediate level. These findings highlight the need for a more balanced integration of all critical thinking skills across both instructional stages. Based on the findings, this study offers the following recommendations: Intentionally incorporating critical thinking skills into Arabic language instruction for non-native speakers as a core element of effective learning; Increasing the emphasis on argument evaluation and inference skills in Arabic language textbooks; Conducting targeted workshops for curriculum developers and instructors to analyze content, identify critical thinking components, and learn practical methods for fostering these skills in learners; Developing standardized, research-based assessment tools to measure learners’ critical thinking abilities, aligned with course objectives and adaptable to various teaching contexts; and Promoting collaboration between Arabic language institutions and research centers to carry out regular evaluations of critical thinking integration and update curricula based on study results. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30386.html One of the linguistic theories currently used to analyze literary texts is Halliday’s systemic functional theory. In this approach, language is the primary means of transmitting culture, and each element is presented based on a specific role within the overall language system. This text-centric approach includes various tools for demonstrating coherence in a text to better convey the speaker's mental concepts. This theory has several components, one of which is the factors of textual cohesion. The main objective of discussing textual cohesion is to examine how an author organizes his diverse and wide-ranging content and creates coherence in his work. Nizar Qabbani, a Syrian diplomat and poet (1923-1998), is best known for his romantic poems that address national sentiment and Arab women's issues; women and love are the main themes of Qabbani's poetry. In this study, one of Nizar Qabbani's short lyrical poems, I Want to Live, is studied based on Halliday and Hassan's theoretical criteria, along two axes: vertical and horizontal. After evaluating the components of this theory and searching for examples of it in his poetry using a descriptive-analytical approach, it was concluded that this poem by Nizar Qabbani exhibits a high capacity for focusing on elements of grammatical and lexical cohesion. All of its words are linked together like a chain; its lexical cohesion is much greater than its grammatical cohesion. Most examples of grammatical cohesion in this poem are linked to personal references. Speakers of any language, when reading a text in that language, notice the presence or absence of cohesion. This point demonstrates that understanding cohesion in practice is not a difficult task. However, although this procedure is easy in a series of sentences, it becomes more difficult when it is supposed to be explained to others and its diagnostic criteria are presented. In 1976, Halliday and Hassan, in their presentation of the theory of textual cohesion, identified the criteria for diagnosing, interpreting, and describing it. A text can be spoken or written, prose or poetry, a conversation or a monologue, from a single phrase to a full-fledged discourse, from a passing cry for help to a full-fledged group discussion (Halliday & Hassan, 1976, p. 1). A text is a semantic unit, not a grammatical or formal unit; its connection to a sentence or phrase is not due to its size or appearance, but rather to its perception within the sentence; that is, a text is not composed of sentences, but is realized or recorded in sentences (ibid., p. 1). Halliday and Hassan called the relationships between sentences in a text textual cohesion and defined it as follows: "Cohesion is a semantic concept that refers to the semantic relationships in a text and distinguishes it as a text from a non-text" (ibid., p. 4). When the propositions of a text are organized in the reader's mind in a way that makes sense, the text is coherent. Coherent relationships between the propositions of a text are formed in the reader’s mind with the help of linguistic and verbal cues. A sign or marker is a clear word, phrase, sentence, or feature that guides the reader in interpreting the main ideas of a text and creates a connection between the text's issues and their relationship to higher-level general units, such as the overall theme of the text. There are different types of relationships between sentences in a text that lead to better cohesion. This research aims to evaluate cohesion and coherence in the text of Nizar Qabbani's poem I Want to Live based on the developed version of Halliday and Hassan's systematic theory. It ultimately aims to answer the following two research questions: What are the textual cohesion factors in Nizar Qabbani's poem I Want to Live? Considering the function of cohesion factors in textual coordination, to what extent is Nizar Qabbani's poem I Want to Live coherent? To answer the above research questions, the nature of cohesion and cohesion factors are first examined from the perspective of these two linguists. Then, based on the required data, the cohesion and its level are evaluated in Nizar Qabbani's poem I Want to Live. This research is based on Halliday and Hassan's (1985) coherence theory and their joint book, Nonstructural Coherence. Before entering into the analysis of the main topic, the background and theoretical concepts of the research are discussed.   Cohesion and Coherence Theory Cohesion in language means unity and stability. It is a characteristic of writing that connects its constituent parts. Cohesion in a sentence stem from the logical connection between words and phrases, and, in the entire effect, from the arrangement of sentences. Michael Halliday and Ruqayya Hassan called the relationships between sentences in a text textual cohesion and defined it as follows: “Cohesion is a semantic concept that refers to the semantic relationships in a text and distinguishes it as a text from a non-text” (Halliday & Hassan, 1976, p. 4). These two theorists believe that the existence of textual cohesion depends on the expression and interpretation of textual elements, which depend on the expression and interpretation of other elements. They consider them part of the linguistic system. In the language system, meaning is conveyed to the audience through words, and words are expressed through phonemes or letters. However, at the same time, the language system also receives assistance from the grammatical system and syntax. Cohesion also follows the same pattern as language, meaning that part of it is expressed through vocabulary and partly through grammar. Accordingly, they divided cohesion into two general categories: syntactic cohesion and lexical cohesion. The two theorists divided cohesion factors in English into five groups: reference, substitution, ellipsis, relational factors, and lexical cohesion (Halliday & Hassan, 1985, p. 32). Reference, substitution, and ellipsis are grammatical devices, while lexical cohesion also belongs to two groups: grammatical and lexical, meaning it helps hold a text together through grammar and vocabulary. Lexical cohesion factors can be classified as: repetition, semantic synonymy, semantic contrast, and semantic inclusion. Halliday and Hassan's theory of cohesion was first used to analyze cohesion factors in English, but it can be applied to different languages, even though their cohesion patterns may differ. The presence of cohesion factors in a text does not complete the analysis of cohesion; it is also necessary to examine the internal interaction of these cohesive nodes and chains, which is called "cohesive coordination". What establishes cohesion in a sentence is the "node". A node connects one element of a sentence to another element in another sentence. Halliday and Hassan emphasized the importance of the node, in other words, being two elements that bring together a pair of elements related to each other in terms of cohesion. Cohesive coordination brings together lexical and syntactic cohesion factors based on chains of unity and similarity; therefore, cohesive coordination is how a text achieves continuity by grouping them into chains and their mutual connection with each other. The vertical relationship of chains depends on taking the cohesive elements into similar chains.   Cohesion Tools Halliday and Hassan first divided text cohesion factors into three general groups: syntactic cohesion, lexical cohesion, and relational cohesion. They then examined the subcategories of each of these cohesion factors (Halliday & Hassan, 1985, p. 82). The following is an explanation and clarification of cohesion factors and tools and their subcategories:   Syntactic Factors Reference Reference is the interpretive return of a pronoun to a word from the words before or after it in the text, helping the reader understand and recognize that word (Mohajer & Nabavi, 1997, p. 64). Reference refers to the process by which a word that has no meaning on its own, such as the pronoun "he", refers to another word in the text to find meaning. Reference is not just a pronoun; pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and relative pronouns in Arabic are also referential elements and create cohesion between phrases. Reference is divided into extratextual and intratextual. Substitution and reference are similar in that, in both processes, a linguistic element replaces another preceding one in the text. However, the difference between them is that substitution is not as restrictive and is largely context-dependent.   Substitution Substitution is another tool for textual cohesion. Substitution means replacing one linguistic element with another; that is, a word or phrase can replace a word, phrase, sentence, or part of the text (see: Halliday & Hassan, 1976, p. 88). Substitution occurs in various forms, such as nominal, verbal, clause, and syllabic in speech. Since it refers the reader's mind to the previous one, it causes different parts of speech to connect.   Elision Elision is the reduction of one or more words or elements in a sentence compared to the preceding elements and words, which appear as nouns, verbs, or clauses (Foruzandeh & Bani Talebi, 2014, p. 113). Elision can be verbal, semantic, or physical. We can say that the process of deletion is the same as the process of substitution; because information that can be retrieved from previous parts of the text is removed, but nothing can replace it (see: Shabanloo et al., 2008, p. 172). We should know that fluency and ease of speech are a result of coherence, and the coherence of a text leads to fluency. Therefore, we can conclude that deletion is one of the basic factors of textual coherence.  Lexical Factors Repetition Repetition is the repetition of elements from previous sentences in a text in subsequent sentences. Repetition can occur in various ways, such as repeating the same word, repeating a synonym, repeating a word with a greater meaning than the preceding word, and repeating common words, prepositions, conjunctions, and others (Foruzandeh & Bani Talebi, 2014, p. 115). One of the most important factors in sentence continuity is repetition, which links a series of sentences together and creates a unified content and theme (Khalili Jahantigh, 2001, p. 30). Repetition is therefore one of the tools of textual cohesion, through which elements from previous sentences are repeated in subsequent sentences.   Collocation Coherence is another type of lexical cohesion. It refers to the combination of certain lexical elements within a text that are related in some way and belong to a specific semantic domain. Their combination leads to the emergence of a relationship between sentences in the text (Foruzandeh & Bani Talebi, 2014, p. 117). Collocation is the same as considering analogy, but in a broader sense; for example, the relationship between agate, ruby, and coral is a type of composition that may represent a proportional fit between the parts of a whole. It must be said that coherence is one of the most important factors in organizing and strengthening a text, creating interconnected meanings, and creating closeness and internal balance within the text. Elements of Relational Cohesion In Halliday's theory, the semantic and logical connection between sentences, syllables, and parts of speech is the primary and necessary factor for the coherence and continuity of a text. Without this factor, text formation is impossible. This type of relationship is called "relational cohesion". Relational cohesion in a text is formed through cohesive factors. Cohesive factors are the tools that connect sentences in a text. The mere presence of grammatical and lexical cohesion elements in sentences does not constitute cohesion; rather, there must be a logical and organized connection between them so that the reader can understand the text as a connected whole (see: Al-Khattabi, 1991, p. 23). This connection is achieved through various connectives, which Halliday and Hassan divided into three types: complementary, causal, and temporal. Connectives must be used at the beginning or between two independent clauses; in other words, relational factors that connect subsequent clauses to the main clauses do not have the property of creating cohesion. Conclusion Cohesion is greater in some parts of the poem, and the networks of connections between its elements are more cohesive in other parts. The degree of consistency and unity between the parts of the poem are not uniform to the point that a part can be easily removed, nor does this cause any disruption to its structure. However, Nizar Qabbani's poem possesses a special cohesion due to the poet's mastery of the language, his diverse vocabulary, and his familiarity with the grammatical and lexical capabilities of the Arabic language. Therefore, the methods of creating cohesion in the axes of grammatical and lexical cohesion in Nizar Qabbani's poem are striking and noteworthy. Grammatical cohesion in his poetry is achieved through techniques such as allusion, ellipsis, and substitution. Lexical cohesion techniques in his poetry include word repetition, synonymy, and contrast. Qabbani used lexical and grammatical cohesion techniques extensively in his poetry, such that several techniques in his poems always play a role side by side and complement each other in the process of cohesion. From this, it can be said that Nizar Qabbani is a poet, linguist, and lexicographer, possessing a remarkable ability to select words and phrases and combine them at a high level. His poetry is very coherent, and his sentences and phrases are intertwined and interconnected. However, their lexical coherence is much greater than their grammatical coherence. Most examples of grammatical coherence in this poem are linked to personal references. Therefore, it can be concluded that, based on what has been said and the abundance of textual coherence factors that indicate a strong connection between the sentences, the poem I Want to Live enjoys very good textual coherence. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30008.html Translating the Holy Quran as a divine text faces unique linguistic, cultural, and interpretative challenges. One of the most complex of these challenges is the transmission of the morphological subtleties of the language that are present in the context of the words of the Holy Quran. On the other hand, it is clear that the morphological structures of words in the Arabic language play an important and significant role in creating new and novel meanings. If these structures are used in the Holy Quran, they will inevitably have double importance and require great precision. Therefore, translating these Quranic structures has always been a difficult task and has challenged many translators. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical-comparative method and aims to present an equivalent in accordance with the structural implications of the Quranic compound "Ghadban Asfa" from the perspective of morphology. It first examines the lexical and morphological implications of these two Quranic words, and then examines the semantic implications of each of the two words Ghadhban and Asfa, which have been revealed in the structure of the similar adjective. It presents the opinions and views of writers and commentators of the Holy Quran that are consistent with the aforementioned implications. In the next step, it criticizes the equivalents presented by contemporary translators of the Holy Quran and, with an analytical and comparative approach, attempts to identify a translation that is closer to the meaning of the two words Ghadhban and Asfa. It should be noted that in this study, the translations of seventeen contemporary translators of the Holy Quran regarding the two mentioned words have been criticized and analyzed in order to examine and analyze their level of success in providing the closest translation in accordance with the structure of the similar adjective. The findings of this study show that both words "ghadban" and "asfa" are similar adjectives in terms of morphological structure and have a connotation of intensity, so translators of the Holy Quran should pay attention to the connotation of its morphological structure, which is intensity, in addition to the lexical meaning and syntactic composition. Based on the aforementioned materials, translations such as "Moses with anger and regret", "Moses with anger and regret", and "Moses while regretting and angry returned to his people" are translations that, although they convey the meaning of this sentence and the Quranic composition "ghadban" to the addressees of the Holy Quran to some extent, they cannot in any way reflect the semantic connotations of the structure of these two Quranic words - the meaning of intensity. In addition, translations such as "very angry" and "very sorry" are also not eloquent and fluent. According to the findings of this study, the suffixes "nak" and "gin" in Persian are usually used to express the connotation of intensity. Therefore, the closest translation to the meaning of the morphological structure of these two Quranic words can be considered as two translations: "angry" or "angry and sad". On the other hand, based on the research conducted in this study, the word "asfa" in addition to the connotation of intensity also has the connotation of permanence and continuity, which indicates the endless regret and sorrow of Prophet Moses in the case of the worship of the calf by the Israelites. Therefore, based on the aforementioned, the word "ghadban" can be translated with the connotation of intensity to mean "angry", and the word asfa can be translated with the connotation of permanence and endless sorrow. It should be noted that this translation is more consistent and consistent with other verses of the Holy Quran on the subject of the worship of the calf by the Children of Israel because in verse 154 of the blessed Surah Al-A'raf, God Almighty informs about the subsiding of the anger of Prophet Moses: "And the anger of Moses was silent". While it does not make any reference to the subsiding or disappearance of Moses' regret, which itself is a reference to the fact that despite the fact that the intensity of Prophet Moses' anger subsided after a few moments, his feeling of regret did not subside or disappear, but rather it was always and everywhere with Prophet Moses. Therefore, and based on the results obtained in this study, about 42% of contemporary translators of the Holy Quran have not succeeded in providing an equivalent that is appropriate to the morphological structure of this Quranic compound. In addition, the translators of this Quranic compound have faced another problem that can be considered one of the most important mistakes of the translators of the Holy Quran in the contemporary era, which is the lack of attention to similar verses and their translation in different and different ways - assuming that they have the same meaning and connotation. It was also concluded that, considering the use of this Quranic compound in the two surahs of A'raf and Taha, about 25% of the translators of the Holy Quran have not been able to provide a uniform and identical equivalent of this Quranic compound. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30133.html This study employs Alan Cunningsworth's prominent framework to evaluate the Iranian ninth-grade Arabic textbook, Arabic, the Language of the Qur’an. Cunningsworth's model emphasizes five core components: objectives, methods, content, skills, and resources. The research aims to identify the textbook's strengths and weaknesses through a systematic analysis. A descriptive-analytical approach was adopted. Ten lessons were quantitatively and qualitatively examined using a 21-item checklist derived from Cunningsworth's criteria. The instrument's reliability was confirmed by a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.85. Findings revealed relative consistency in content organization (mean = 28.6) and information retrieval (mean = 70.4). However, significant weaknesses were identified in teaching methods and educational innovation (mean = 7.4). The analysis also uncovered an imbalanced coverage of language skills, with a pronounced emphasis on listening and writing over speaking and reading. The frequency of observed criteria was highest for content organization (1,665), followed by language skills (1,443), while teaching methods scored the lowest (1,416). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed statistically significant differences among the five components (F = 47.35, p = 1.48 × 10⁻⁹). A t-test (t = 3.66, p = 0.0018) further validated the notable lack of innovation. The study concludes by recommending a comprehensive redesign of the textbook's content. Incorporating interactive activities and innovative pedagogical methods is essential to achieve a balance among the four language skills and ultimately enhance the quality of Arabic language instruction in Iran. The significance of this evaluation is underscored by the unique status of Arabic in Iran, where it transcends being a mere foreign language. It is essential for understanding Islamic heritage, including the Qur'an and Hadith, and for strengthening historical and cultural ties with the Arab world. Consequently, Arabic education is viewed as a crucial bridge to religious and cultural identity. Textbooks serve as the primary guide for the teaching process in Iran, especially given the limited integration of modern educational tools. They provide a structured framework for mastering linguistic structures and communicative competencies. Evaluating textbooks is therefore critical for identifying deficiencies and ensuring alignment with learners' needs and modern pedagogical standards. Cunningsworth's model is particularly valuable for this purpose, offering a comprehensive and flexible set of criteria for thorough analysis. In the Iranian educational system, Arabic is taught from the seventh to the twelfth grade. Despite global technological advancements in education, the textbook remains the cornerstone of instruction. The ninth-grade textbook is a critical link, building upon foundational knowledge and preparing students for advanced studies. This research aims to provide insights that can guide educational policymakers and textbook authors in improving the quality of learning resources. The objectives of this study are to evaluate the textbook's alignment with Cunningsworth's criteria, analyze its effectiveness in enhancing linguistic and communicative skills, and propose actionable recommendations for improvement. The research questions are: to what extent does the textbook align with the specified model, how are the model's components manifested in the textbook, and is the textbook suitable as a core study material? The methodological approach involved a detailed analysis of ten lessons. Quantitative data included means, standard deviations, frequencies, ANOVA, and t-tests. Qualitative analysis assessed the depth of content and the balance between different language skills. Results indicated considerable variability across lessons. For instance, content organization scores varied significantly. The stark contrast between high scores for information retrieval and very low scores for innovation was a key finding. Statistical analyses confirmed that these differences were not random but represented significant gaps in the textbook's design, particularly in employing modern teaching methods. Recommendations include redesigning lessons to ensure a balanced integration of all Cunningsworth's components, adding interactive exercises such as group discussions and educational games, developing and incorporating innovative teaching methods that connect the content to practical, real-life situations, and adding a variety of interactive activities to create equilibrium among listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Additionally, enhancing the teacher's guide by including answer keys and supplementary audio-visual materials is advised. This study was limited by its exclusive focus on the textbook itself, without incorporating the perspectives of teachers and students through surveys or interviews. Future research should include these viewpoints to gain a more holistic understanding of the textbook's practical challenges. Suggestions for future research include extending the evaluation to textbooks for other grades, integrating qualitative feedback from educators and learners, establishing a committee of experts to develop a strategic plan for addressing identified weaknesses, organizing specialized teacher training workshops focused on innovative methods for teaching speaking and reading, and creating a complementary digital learning package to target the skills found to be underdeveloped. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30165.html Language is considered the most important tool for elucidating ideas, which is why it has long been a subject of interest for thinkers, philosophers, and sociologists. During the twentieth century, linguistic studies expanded and connected with other humanities fields such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy. This led to the emergence of various theories. In the middle of this century, methodologies and research on the relationship between language and gender were introduced, prompting researchers to ask questions about the impact of gender on the content and style of speech. One of these methodologies is Robin Lakoff's theory of linguistic dominance, which focuses on the relationship between language and gender and emphasizes the biological differences between men and women, as well as the social and cultural distinctions between them. If this approach is accepted, then structural differences in the intellectual products of both genders are not unlikely. Accordingly, there is a clear difference in language characteristics between women and men, which can generally be observed in literary genres, especially in novels. Contemporary Arabic literature, after the significant transformations it has undergone over the past decades, has succeeded in introducing many female writers to the literary world, among them: Sahar Khalifeh, Huda Barakat, Ahlam Mosteghanemi, Radwa Ashour, Emily Nasrallah, Najwa Barakat, and others. These writers have left a clear mark on contemporary Arabic literature, and through their stories and narratives, they have managed to present a distinctive literature that transcends the narrow framework of women's issues in Arab society to broader social and human horizons. Liyanah Badr is a Palestinian writer and novelist, and her novel Nujum Ariha is one of her most prominent works. It highlights the social reality in Palestine and the suffering experienced by its people due to forced displacement and its impact on the psyche of Palestinians in general and the author in particular. A prominent feature of this novel is the portrayal of feminine emotions. Women play a central role in the events of the novel, which seems to stem from the fact that both the author and narrator are women who present the story through their perspective and experience, depicting it as a journey through the memory of their homeland, specifically the city of Jericho. The novel embodies details of its places, landmarks, and characters, and the novelist attempts to reveal events from her bitter real-life experience. This research aims to study Nujum Ariha to evaluate the style of feminine writing in this novel from the perspective of Robin Lakoff's sociolinguistic theory through structural and content analysis. From this standpoint, it seeks to answer the following three research questions: What are the gender indicators present in "Nujum Ariha" at the linguistic level? What are the components of the feminine writing style at the grammatical level in the novel? How are feminine feelings and ideas manifested in this novel?   The hypotheses of the study are: Gender indicators in this novel manifest in terms related to household tasks, color descriptions, and polite expressions. The components of feminine writing style at the grammatical level are expected to be represented by reliance on interrogative sentences, vocatives, the use of emphasis and repetition tools, and short or incomplete sentences. It appears that the novelist focused on feminine emotions in depicting Palestinian life, addressing issues related to women and family relationships, and used proverbs and folk beliefs to root Palestinian heritage.   After studying the relationship between language and gender in the novel Nujum Ariha, the research reached the following conclusions: There is no distinction in the principles and foundations of language between men and women; however, the differences in emotions and personal experiences between the genders may lead to the use of a specific language for both genders. Since the writer and narrator are women, feminine traits are manifested in the narrative style of the novel. These traits appeared on three levels: linguistic, grammatical, and intellectual. At the linguistic level, Lakoff's theory was confirmed by the evident differences in language usage between men and women. This feature was prominent in the use of terms related to household tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and describing facial features and cosmetics. The details of various and rare colors were accurately depicted throughout different parts of the novel. To enhance the position and create a stronger impact on the recipient, emphatic expressions were used as tools for affirmation and swearing. At the grammatical level, feminine style characteristics appeared through the use of polite language, devoid of vulgar expressions. Due to the narrator's lack of confidence and sense of alienation, there was an increase in interrogative sentences and the use of doubt-inducing tools as mechanisms for communication, creating dialogue and aligning the recipient with the narrator. The number of incomplete and short sentences increased because the novel is a journey through memory, leading to a fragmentation of the plot. At the intellectual level, the novel contained women's issues, including topics related to family affairs and matters that intrigue women, such as magic and superstition, causing some characters to become engulfed in ignorance and myth. The attention to detail became exaggerated in the novel, especially concerning depicting the lives of Palestinians and their suffering due to the occupation of their lands. Politics became a point of interest for the narrator, contrary to Lakoff's assertion that politics is not a preferred topic for most women. The return to the city of Jericho and the emotional connection of the narrator to it form a central pivot around which most of the events of the novel revolve. Alongside this, there is an abundance of emotions that reflect feelings of sadness and pain in the narrator, who lives in exile from her homeland and hopes to return, live there, and fulfill her beautiful dreams once again. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30281.html Amid the diversity of modern critical approaches to analyzing literary discourse, discursive argumentation emerges as a fundamental perspective focusing on the study of language within its communicative context, as an effective tool for influencing the recipient and shaping their opinion. Discursive argumentation is considered a dynamic concept based on employing language to serve the construction of meaning and guide the recipient within an interactive communicative framework. It is an extension of pragmatic studies that link language to its practical uses. Within this framework, the poet Suleiman Al-Nabhani was selected due to the richness of argumentation and the diversity of persuasive techniques in his poetry, making it fertile ground for exploring discursive argumentative mechanisms. Al-Nabhani, as a traditional poet influenced by his Omani and Arab environment, employed his poetic discourse to serve multiple purposes, both personal and collective, relying on diverse argumentative strategies that blend logic, emotion, and rhetoric. The research aims to monitor the argumentative indicators in Al-Nabhani’s texts and analyze the role of the historical context in shaping persuasion strategies, as well as revealing the interaction between the poetic structure and the argumentative function. Consequently, the research adopts the pragmatic method of analysis, utilizing tools from pragmatics and modern argumentation theories. The role of this methodology lies in studying the communicative context and its social and cultural dimensions to reveal how argumentative discourse is formed and influences the recipient.     The significance of the study lies in shedding light on an important aspect of Al-Nabhani's poetry, while also contributing to a deeper understanding of discursive argumentation in Arabic poetry in general, and Omani poetry in particular. This study seeks to answer the following three research questions: What are the most prominent argumentative strategies employed by Al-Nabhani in his poetic discourse? How are shared references (Islamic values, tribal customs, Omani history) used in building arguments by Al-Nabhani? To what extent is dialogical argumentation in Al-Nabhani's poetry effective in influencing the recipient and achieving successful communication?   The study adopted an analytical pragmatic approach that examines language in its actual communicative context, utilizing tools from pragmatics and modern argumentation theories such as the works of Ducrot and van Eemeren. Diverse poetic models from the diwan of the poet Suleiman Al-Nabhani were analyzed to track argumentative indicators and the role of the historical and cultural context in shaping persuasion strategies, and to reveal the interaction between poetic structure and argumentative function.   The theoretical framework was based on the concepts of pragmatics and pragmatic argumentation, which is defined as a discursive genre aimed at persuasion and influencing the recipient’s behavior. The analytical mechanisms were confined to four main axes: argumentative connectives such as logical connectors, argumentative operators such as restrictives and emphatics, the argumentative scale as a mechanism for gradation in presenting arguments, and speech acts as influential performative tools.   The applied analysis included two stages: horizontal analysis, which tracks each mechanism across the texts, and vertical analysis, which studies the integration of these mechanisms within a single text. The analysis involved examining argumentative connectives like "even" and "because" and studying their function in building argumentative gradation. It also involved analyzing argumentative operators and constructing argumentative scales through the logical sequence from premises to conclusions. The analysis concluded by studying constructive styles and their semantic transformations from literal meaning to persuasive function.   The study revealed that Al-Nabhani's poetry is distinguished by a notable argumentative richness through the diverse employment of persuasion mechanisms. He utilized argumentative connectives to highlight the logical progression between arguments and used argumentative operators for emphasis and restriction. The results showed the poet’s skill in building argumentative scales that begin with provocation or questioning and gradually progress towards presenting arguments leading to decisive conclusions. He also successfully employed constructive styles as effective tools for refuting opposing views and entrenching positions. The results confirmed the effectiveness of using shared cultural references in enhancing the power of the argument and persuading the recipient.   The study confirmed that Al-Nabhani's poetry represented an effective communicative system that achieved multiple performative purposes. It successfully transformed poetry from an aesthetic tool into an effective means of persuasion, reflecting a deep awareness of the nature of the addresses and their ways of thinking. These argumentative mechanisms contributed to enriching the poetic meaning and achieving the desired social and cultural impact. The importance of the study lies in its highlighting of a significant aspect of Al-Nabhani’s poetry that was absent in previous studies. It also contributes to deepening the understanding of pragmatic argumentation in Arabic poetry in general, and Omani poetry in particular. These findings open avenues for future studies on pragmatic argumentation in other Arabic poetic and rhetorical discourses. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30283.html The maqama is one of the most distinctive prose genres in classical Arabic literature, combining ornate language, rhymed prose, narrative episodes, and satirical scenes. Its unique structure makes it an ideal medium for depicting social practices, intellectual tensions, and ethical contradictions—particularly during the Abbasid period, when intense cultural and religious debates shaped the collective consciousness of society. Within this context, Maqama al-Samarqandiyya stands out as a narrative that embodies social criticism through humor, irony, and rhetorical mastery. Al-Hariri constructs a multilayered story that reflects the contradictory values of his time, particularly the gap between outward religiosity and hidden behavior. Lucien Goldmann’s genetic structuralism provides a productive analytical lens for examining such texts. The theory views literary works as expressions of the collective worldview of specific social groups and holds that narratives emerge from the structural tensions within a given society. Concepts such as totality, dialectical relations, worldview, reification, and the problematic hero allow for a deeper understanding of how literature mirrors social structures. By applying this theoretical framework to Maqama al-Samarqandiyya, the present study investigates how the narrative represents, critiques, and reconstructs the socio-cultural contradictions of its environment.   The study adopts a descriptive-analytical method, combining textual analysis with theoretical interpretation. The procedure includes: Close reading of the maqama to identify narrative features, satirical techniques, and rhetorical devices. Extraction of thematic units, particularly those related to hypocrisy, value contradictions, and social performance.   Application of Goldmann’s theoretical principles, including: Totality, through which the narrative reveals a coherent picture of social contradictions; Dialectics, reflected in the mutual influence between characters and societal expectations; Worldview, manifested in the ideological tensions embedded in the actions of the preacher and Abu Zayd; Reification, evident in the dominance of linguistic ornamentation over ethical substance; and The problematic hero, represented by Abu Zayd al-Saruji as a figure embodying moral ambiguity. Relating textual analysis to historical context, particularly the social atmosphere of the Abbasid age, defined by public displays of piety alongside private moral lapses.     The findings of the study indicate that Maqama al-Samarqandiyya functions simultaneously as a literary narrative and a social commentary in the sense that:   The text reflects the contradictions of Abbasid society. Through the encounter between the sugar merchant and the preacher who appears devout in public but secretly drinks wine, the maqama exposes the tension between appearance and reality. The narrative thus mirrors the collective consciousness of a social class struggling with ethical inconsistency. The maqama exhibits clear features of genetic structuralism. Totality appears in the integration of religious, ethical, and social contradictions into a unified narrative framework. Dialectics is represented in the preacher’s dual position as both a shaper of social values and a product of societal hypocrisy. Worldview emerges through the conflicting discourses that justify contradictory behavior. Reification is evident in the preacher’s ornate sermons, which prioritize linguistic embellishment over moral meaning. The problematic hero—Abu Zayd—personifies the fractured moral landscape of his time, shifting between honesty and deception in response to social pressures. The text uses these structural principles to critique social practices. The maqama highlights how religious discourse can serve as a tool for maintaining status rather than promoting genuine ethical conduct. The narrative exposes the emptiness of rhetorical performance and the cultural tendency to privilege form over content. The analysis reveals significant social implications. The maqama reflects a broader crisis of values, including the spread of hypocrisy, the dominance of superficial appearances, and the separation of eloquence from moral purpose. Through satire and linguistic play, al-Hariri unearths the layered tensions of Abbasid society, giving the text a significance that extends beyond literary artistry. The study concludes that Maqama al-Samarqandiyya is a sophisticated narrative that reflects and critiques the social structures of its time. Viewed through genetic structuralism, the maqama emerges as a carefully crafted representation of societal tensions, revealing contradictions between public virtue and private vice. Al-Hariri’s reliance on satire, rhetorical flourish, and the problematic presence of Abu Zayd underscores his intention to expose the gaps between ethical ideals and actual behavior. The maqama therefore functions as both a literary masterpiece and a form of cultural documentation, offering valuable insight into the intellectual and social structures of the Abbasid world. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30355.html Extended AbstractThe use of vocabulary learning strategies contributes significantly to facilitating vocabulary acquisition and makes learners more successful in using the language compared with their peers who do not resort to such strategies. In light of the importance of vocabulary learning strategies in developing the four language skills, this study adopts a descriptive-survey methodology to examine the attitudes of Arabic language students at Shiraz University toward vocabulary learning strategies, namely cognitive, metacognitive, social, memory, and decision-making strategies. The study also seeks to answer the following two research questions: Which strategies exhibit the highest frequency of use, and which show the lowest?What are the underlying reasons for learners’ preference for certain strategies and their avoidance of others? To collect the data, Schmidt’s (1997) Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire was employed. This questionnaire is used to investigate the types of vocabulary learning strategies adopted by learners, with the aim of identifying their frequency and patterns among the participants. It is regarded by a large number of researchers as the most comprehensive and integrative instrument in the field of vocabulary learning strategies (Gelik & Toptaş, 2010). The questionnaire comprised five categories of learning strategies, each containing eight items, resulting in a total of forty items. These five categories, respectively, are: memory strategies, determination strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and finally, metacognitive strategies. The questionnaire was designed using a five-point Likert scale (very high, high, moderate, low, and very low). The statistical population of the present study consisted of students of the Department of Arabic Language and Literature at Iranian universities, while the statistical sample was limited to 100 undergraduate and Master’s students majoring in Arabic Language and Literature at Shiraz University. Since the participants were drawn from this major at Shiraz University, convenience sampling was adopted to select the respondents. Within the framework of this study, after providing students with information about the questionnaire and its objectives, they were asked to complete it. Accordingly, 65 undergraduate students and 35 Master’s students from Shiraz University responded to the questionnaire’s items. The findings of the study show that determination strategies are the most popular among undergraduate and Master’s students in the Department of Arabic Language and Literature at Shiraz University. These are followed by metacognitive strategies as the second most frequently used, and memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and finally, social strategies, respectively. Students’ preference for determination strategies can be explained by their practicality and ease of implementation, as well as their reduced reliance on specialized knowledge, making them accessible to learners at all proficiency levels. Among social strategies, searching for information online recorded a very high frequency and emerged as the most prominent strategy. This preference may be attributed to the ease of access to electronic resources, their extensive availability, the diversity of content, and the possibility of easily comparing meanings and different perspectives. In contrast, the strategies of group language games and collaborative training to expand vocabulary knowledge showed low frequencies within the social strategy category. The limited preference for group language games may be explained by factors such as the informal nature of the activity, the scarcity of instructional resources designed for this approach, and individual differences among students. Similarly, the low use of collaborative training strategies may be related to a lack of group harmony, time constraints, or fear of peer evaluation. Overall, students in the Department of Arabic Language and Literature at Shiraz University tend to favor individual strategies and show less interest in group activities. With the advancement of technology and the increased use of smartphones and digital encyclopedias, students may have less motivation to engage in collaborative activities and face-to-face interaction in the learning process. Schmidt (1997, p. 33) emphasizes the effectiveness of learning through social interaction, particularly in authentic language environments. Nevertheless, neglecting this strategy—whether due to learners’ insufficient awareness of its impact on language learning or their shyness in communicating with others—deprives them of its potential benefits. With regard to cognitive strategies, it was observed that the oral repetition of words, note-taking, reviewing previous lessons, using a notebook to record vocabulary, and establishing links between words and physical objects were among the most frequently used strategies. In contrast, listening to Arabic-language CDs and using flashcards were among the least frequently strategies employed by students. In general, students’ inclination toward the more frequently used strategies can be attributed to their practicality, accessibility, and flexibility. The limited use of other strategies may be due to their lower appeal and the time-consuming nature of their implementation, which reduces students’ willingness to adopt them. Additional reasons for the limited use of CDs may include difficulties in access, limited active learner engagement, and poor retention resulting from their non-interactive nature. As for the infrequent use of flashcards, in addition to the aforementioned reasons, other factors may include the time required to create them, the tendency toward superficial vocabulary learning, and limited active engagement. Regarding metacognitive strategies, strategies involving direct engagement with linguistic content—such as watching films, studying advertisements, and linking words to one another—were found to be the most frequently used strategies among learners, whereas listening to podcasts was among the least used strategies. The extensive use of these strategies can be explained by their practicality and flexibility, while students’ reluctance to listen to podcasts may be attributed to challenges related to content comprehension. As for memory strategies, strategies involving associating words with images and repeated rehearsal were among the most frequently used, whereas reviewing the preceding and following words of a new vocabulary item was the least used. Finally, with respect to determination strategies, guessing meanings and using dictionaries were among the most frequently employed strategies by students. https://rall.ui.ac.ir/article_30356.html This study investigates the argumentative strategies of silence in Wafaa Abdel Razzaq’s poetic collection The Lovers’ Oath, highlighting how silence functions not as a linguistic void but as a semantic force that shapes meaning, intensifies emotional resonance, and deepens the communicative relationship between the poet and the reader. In contemporary rhetorical and linguistic studies, silence is increasingly viewed as a strategic component of discourse capable of carrying implicit meanings that the spoken or written word alone cannot convey. In this collection, silence emerges as a multilayered rhetorical device that activates the reader’s interpretative faculties by creating intentional gaps, pauses, and absences that require cognitive and emotional participation. Rather than representing a lack of expression, silence becomes a site of heightened meaning—an alternative language that expands the borders of poetic communication.   The study investigates three principal strategies of silence that dominate the collection: sawsimatiya (the interplay of sound and silence), the interrogation of consonants, and ellipsis. Through these strategies, the poet constructs a complex network of implications that invite the reader to become an active co-producer of meaning. The research adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology that involves meticulously tracing silent elements throughout the poetic text and examining their rhetorical function within the broader argumentative structure of the work. This methodological approach enables a detailed exploration of how silence contributes to the construction of poetic meaning and how its deliberate use transforms the reader’s engagement with the text.   Silence in The Lovers’ Oath serves as an argument in itself—one that relies on the power of implication rather than explicit declaration. By creating semantic spaces requiring completion, the poet places the reader in the position of both observer and interpreter, thereby enhancing the communicative and psychological impact of the poetic message. The argument embedded in silence is neither neutral nor passive; instead, it becomes a persuasive force that shapes the reader’s emotional and intellectual response. Silence thus transcends its traditional association with absence and instead becomes an active rhetorical instrument that communicates as powerfully as articulated language.   The first strategy explored in this study, sawsimatiya, reveals how the poet constructs emotional tension and meaning through the dynamic coexistence of sound and silence. This strategy does not simply alternate between speech and its absence but creates an interplay where silence enriches the spoken word by adding layers of suggestion, hesitation, or longing. The emotional experience conveyed through sawsimatiya cannot be fully captured through explicit language; rather, it emerges in the subtle shifts where the poem deliberately withholds expression, prompting the reader to infer what remains unsaid. This creates a depth of expression that makes silence an indispensable component of the poem’s semantic architecture.   The interrogation of consonants, the second strategy, demonstrates how silent linguistic elements—particularly consonants that carry structural but not vocalized significance—are transformed into active conveyors of meaning. In Arabic, consonants form the backbone of the language’s semantic structure, and Abdel Razzaq skillfully employs this linguistic feature to produce silent yet potent argumentative effects. By emphasizing or manipulating consonantal patterns, she imbues silence with semantic density, turning the “unsounded” into a site of interpretive productivity. This strategy allows the poet to embed meaning in the very framework of the word, engaging the reader in a deeper reflection on how language, even in its silent components, can be mobilized to articulate emotional and intellectual states. Ellipsis, the third strategy, operates through the intentional omission of words, sentences, or ideas. This device creates open semantic spaces that the reader must fill through inference, imagination, or emotional projection. Ellipsis is particularly important in the collection because it creates a sense of suspended meaning, inviting the reader to move beyond what is explicitly presented and explore the latent possibilities embedded in silence. The strategic use of ellipsis generates curiosity, intensifies emotional resonance, and fosters a participatory relationship between the poet and the reader. Through this mechanism, silence becomes a tool that activates the reader’s internal dialogue, enhancing the poem’s communicative power.   The findings of this study reveal that these three strategies collectively establish silence as a central argumentative mechanism in The Lovers’ Oath. They demonstrate how silence operates at multiple levels—phonetic, syntactic, semantic, and emotional—to construct meaning that is both implicit and deeply affective. The poet’s ability to engage the reader through silent cues underscores the sophistication of her rhetorical technique and her mastery in transforming silence into a communicative bridge. By inviting readers to complete the text, interpret its gaps, and engage with its implicit messages, Abdel Razzaq creates a collaborative process of meaning-making that enriches the reader’s experience.   In conclusion, silence in The Lovers’ Oath is not merely a stylistic feature but a foundational element of the text’s argumentative and communicative structure. Its strategic use amplifies meaning, evokes emotional depth, and strengthens the relationship between the poet and the reader. The study contributes to the broader understanding of how contemporary Arabic poetry revitalizes classical rhetorical devices through innovative applications that resonate with modern expressive needs. Silence, as employed by Abdel Razzaq, emerges as a powerful medium of artistic expression that transcends linguistic boundaries and reveals the profound potential of what remains unspoken.